American Historical Events

---

Michele de Cuneo took part in the first exploring expedition under Hojeda to the interior of Hispaniola   

(Hispaniola, now divided between the Dominican Republic and Haiti.), and with Columbus made the voyage of discovery to Cuba and Jamaica of April-September 1494.

Returning to Savona in 1495, he addressed this letter to a friend, Hieronymo Annari, who had asked him for information about the New World.

“In that island we took twelve very beautiful and very fat women from 15 to 16 years old, together with two boys of the same age. These had the genital organ cut to the belly; and this we thought had been done in order to prevent them from meddling with their wives or maybe to fatten them up and later eat them. These boys and girls had been taken by the above mentioned Caribs; and we sent them to Spain to the King, as a sample.”

“While I was in the boat I captured a very beautiful Carib woman, whom the said Lord Admiral gave to me, and with whom, having taken her into my cabin, she being naked according to their custom, I conceived desire to take pleasure. I wanted to put my desire into execution but she did not want it and treated me with her finger nails in such a manner that I wished I had never begun. But seeing that, (to tell you the end of it all), I took a rope and thrashed her well, for which she raised such unheard of screams that you would not have believed your ears. Finally we came to an agreement in such manner that I can tell you that she seemed to have been brought up in a school of harlots.”

 Columbus wrote the following in a letter in 1500 to Doña Juana de la Torre, a nurse in the royal court of Queen Isabella and the sister of one of Columbus' leading crew members on his second voyage to the Americas.

“There are plenty of dealers who go about looking for girls; those from  nine to ten are now in demand, and for all ages a good price must be  paid.” 

Diseases Transferred from the "Old World" to the "New World" included smallpox, measles, mumps, chickenpox, influenza, typhus, and malaria.  

These diseases had a catastrophic impact on Native American populations, who had no immunity to them. Millions died from these diseases, leading to a significant decline in the indigenous population. 

Columbus kidnapped and enslaved more than a thousand people on Hispaniola.

According to Michel de Cuneo, Columbus ordered 1,500 men and women seized,  letting 400 go and condemning 500 to be sent to Spain, and another 600  to be enslaved by Spanish men remaining on the island. About 200 of the  500 sent to Spain died on the voyage, and were thrown by the Spanish  into the Atlantic.

The following are quotes from Bartholome de Las Cases writings.

Arriving as one of the first Spanish settlers in the Americas, Las Casas initially participated in the colonial economy built on forced Indigenous labor, but eventually felt compelled to oppose the abuses committed by European colonists against the Indigenous population. In 1515 he gave up his Native American slaves. He then advocated, before Charles V, on behalf of rights for the natives. In his early writings, he advocated the use of African slaves to replace Indigenous labor. 

Later in life, he retracted this position, as he regarded both forms of slavery as equally wrong.

“They took infants from their mothers’ breasts, snatching them by the legs and pitching them headfirst against the crags or snatched them by the arms and threw them into the rivers, roaring with laughter and saying as the babies fell into the water, ‘Boil there, you offspring of the devil!’”

“And never have the Indians in all the Indies committed any act against the Spanish Christians, until those Christians have first and many times committed countless cruel aggressions against them or against neighboring nations.”

“They laid bets as to who, with one stroke of the sword, could split a man in two or could cut off his head or spill out his entrails with a single stroke of the pike.”

“They made some low wide gallows on which the hanged victim’s feet almost touched the ground, stringing up their victims in lots of thirteen, in memory of Our Redeemer and His twelve Apostles, then set burning wood at their feet and thus burned them alive.”

“Their reason for killing and destroying such an infinite number of souls is that the Christians have an ultimate aim, which is to acquire gold, and to swell themselves with riches in a very brief time and thus rise to a high estate disproportionate to their merits.”

“They attacked the towns and spared neither the children nor the aged nor pregnant women nor women in childbed, not only stabbing them and dismembering them but cutting them to pieces as if dealing with sheep in the slaughter house.”

“These people are the most devoid of rancors, hatreds, or desire for vengeance of any people in the world.”

“They made a grid of rods which they placed on forked sticks, then lashed the victims to the grid and lighted a smoldering fire underneath, so that little by little, as those captives screamed in despair and torment, their souls would leave them.”

“With still others, all those they wanted to capture alive, they cut off their hands and hung them round the victim’s neck, saying, “Go now, carry the message,” meaning, Take the news to the Indians who have fled to the mountains.”

“We can estimate very surely and truthfully that in the forty years that have passed, with the infernal actions of the Christians, there have been unjustly slain more than twelve million men, women, and children. In truth, I believe without trying to deceive myself that the number of the slain is more like fifteen million.”

 On October 20, 1669, the Virginia Colonial Assembly enacted a law that removed criminal penalties for enslavers who killed enslaved people resisting authority. The assembly stated that “the obstinacy of many [enslaved people] cannot be suppressed by other than violent means.” The law provided that an enslaver's killing of an enslaved person could not constitute murder because the “premeditated malice” element of murder could not be formed against one’s own property.

In 1723, the Virginia Colonial Assembly went on to remove all penalties for the killing of enslaved people during “correction,” meaning that an enslaved person could be killed for an “offense” as minor as picking bad tobacco. The law excused the killing of an enslaved person if the killing was in any way provoked. In effect, enslavers could kill enslaved people with impunity in colonial-era Virginia, and the same was true in most of the other colonial territories. 

Following the American Revolution, many states did create penalties for killing enslaved people—but the loophole permitting the killing of an enslaved person during “correction” or to prevent “resistance” remained. 

  James Marion Sims (1813-1883) is often credited as the “father of modern gynecology”, however, he built his career by performing multiple horrific and painful experiments on enslaved Black women.

He began his career after interning with a doctor, taking a three-month course and studying for a year at Jefferson Medical College.

Sims began his practice in Lancaster but relocated to Montgomery, Alabama, after the death of his first two patients.

In Montgomery Sims built a reputation among white plantation owners by treating their enslaved workers to make them fit to work again.

Sims began experimenting in 1845 with surgical techniques to treat vesicovaginal fistulas, a complication of childbirth in which a hole develops between a woman's bladder and her vagina and leads to uncontrollable urinary incontinence. He experimented on female slaves, taking ownership of the women until their treatment was completed. He wrote in his autobiography about the advantages he found in working on people that were essentially his property: “There was never a time that I could not, at any day, have had a subject for operation.”

Today, we know the names of only three of the female fistula patients from Sims’s records—Lucy, Anarcha, and Betsey. It is estimated that Sims operated on 14 female slaves in total. The first one he operated on was 18-year-old Lucy, who had given birth a few months prior and hadn’t been able to control her bladder since. During the procedure, she was completely naked and made to perch on her knees, bending forward onto her elbows. Lucy endured an hour-long surgery with no anesthesia, screaming and crying out in pain, as nearly a dozen other doctors watched. As Sims later wrote, “Lucy’s agony was extreme.” She also became extremely ill due to his use of a sponge to drain the urine away from the bladder, contracting blood poisoning. “I thought she was going to die… It took Lucy two or three months to recover entirely from the effects of the operation,” he wrote. The operation failed to repair the fistulas.

Betsy was next. Like Lucy, Betsy was naked on the operating table and not given any anesthesia. This time, Sims used a device he invented for her bladder, and Betsy did not experience the same post-surgical infection that Lucy suffered. But Betsy’s injury was not repaired and this operation was also a failure.

Then came Anarcha. Anarcha was a 17-year-old enslaved woman who had had a very traumatic labor and delivery. He performed 29 operations on Anarcha, but these were also failures.

Anarcha, Betsy, and Lucy were left in Sims’s control, because without a cure, they were considered useless to their enslavers. They worked for the Sims family in the periods between their procedures and recovery.

He trained Anarcha, Betsy, and Lucy to assist during operations and care for each other during their recoveries. The women had no choice but to continue cooperating with Sims. In time, they became skilled medical practitioners in their own right.

In 1849, Sims performed Anarcha’s 30th operation. This time, Anarcha’s injury healed and she made a full recovery. Sims closed his hospital and moved north. Anarcha, Betsy, and Lucy were all sent back to their enslavers after suffering five years of experimentation.

In 1852, Sims published an article about his new procedure. He never mentioned that the women he operated on were enslaved or that he had total control over their bodies. He also never mentioned that the enslaved women became skilled medical practitioners. In the illustrations in his article, he is shown operating on white women (shown covered) with the help of a white nurse. 

Now that he had perfected his method, he began to practice on white women using anesthesia. In New York he opened the first-ever Woman’s Hospital, where he continued testing medical treatments on his patients. When any of Sims’s patients died, he claimed the blame lay squarely with “the sloth and ignorance of their mothers and the Black midwives who attended them.”

Before his experiments on women, he also tested surgical treatments on enslaved Black infants with neonatal tetanus, a severe and often fatal infection that occurs within the first few weeks of life, with little to no success. 

A statue of Sims erected in New York in 1894 remained until January 2018, when finally, in response to criticism regarding Sims history and methods, it was relocated to Sims’ gravesite.

There are still many in the medical community that hold that Sims made significant contributions to medicine and that the women were willing participants. When the American Urogynecologic Society finally changed the name of their keynote lecture from The J. Marion Sims Lecture on November 11, 2017, they said, “His contributions to women’s health were many; that much is beyond dispute. Sims cannot and should not be held responsible for the institution of slavery itself. But the reality is that there is much we cannot know, and the dynamics of power cannot be separated from the story.

The J. Marion Sims lecture served this society well for many years, we were no longer unified in our views, and it now serves primarily as a source of polarization, pain, and disenfranchisement.” 

The Seneca Falls women’s rights convention is held in New York July 19-20, 1848, with 300 attendees. Organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. Sixty-eight women and 32 men (including Frederick Douglass) sign the Declaration of Sentiments. 

 Key Callouts from the Declaration of Sentiments

"...Having deprived her of this first right of a citizen, the elective  franchise, thereby leaving her without representation in the halls of  legislation, he has oppressed her on all sides....

He has taken from her all right in property, even to the wages she earns....

In the covenant of marriage, she is compelled to promise  obedience to her husband, he becoming, to all intents and purposes, her  master - the law giving him power to deprive her of her liberty, and to  administer chastisement....

... the law, in all cases, going upon the false supposition of  the supremacy of man, and giving all power into his hands...

He has monopolized nearly all the profitable employments, and from  those she is permitted to follow, she receives but a scanty  remuneration.

He closes against her all the avenues to wealth and distinction,  which he considers most honorable to himself. ..

He has created a false public sentiment, by giving to the world a  different code of morals for men and women, by which moral delinquencies  which exclude women from society, are not only tolerated but deemed of  little account in man...

He has endeavored, in every way that he could to destroy her  confidence in her own powers, to lessen her self-respect, and to make  her willing to lead a dependent and abject life."

  Robert Newsom acquired 14-year-old Celia in Audrain County in 1850 to act as his concubine after his wife had died the previous year. On the way back to Callaway County, Newsom sexually assaulted Celia for the first time.

Newsom housed Celia separately from his other five slaves, all male, in a cabin close to the main house. Celia became involved with George, one of Newsom's four adult male slaves, and began sharing the cabin with him by the beginning of 1855.

Celia had three children, at least one of which was indisputably Robert Newsom's, the third one was delivered during her incarceration. Early historians reported that this child was stillborn, but more recent historians believe this child was sold following birth.

According to the probate court of Callaway County, Celia's daughters were sold in the year following her execution.

In early 1855, Celia, approximately nineteen, conceived for the third time, and George demanded Celia cut off her relationship with Robert Newsom. Celia repeatedly told Newsom to stop sexually assaulting her. On June 23, 1855, Newsom came to her cabin. Celia struck Newsom twice with a large stick, killing him. She burned his body in her fireplace while her two children slept. The following day, the search party questioned George and then Celia, who eventually confessed, denying that George was involved in any way with the murder or the disposal of the body. After Celia's arrest, George was sold to another family.

Judge William Augustus Hall appointed Celia's defense team of John Jameson, Chapman Kouns, and Isaac M. Boulware. They contended Newsom's death was justifiable homicide and argued that Celia, despite being a slave, was entitled by Missouri law to use deadly force to defend herself against sexual coercion, basing their argument off of the Missouri statute of 1845, which declared "any woman" could be the victim of sexual assault.

Judge Hall denied the defense's jury instruction to acquit based on the sexual assault and would not allow the jury to consider self-defense or to find Celia justified to ward off her master's sexual advances. Celia's jury consisted entirely of white male farmers, four who were slave owners. They convicted Celia on October 10, 1855. Celia's defense team filed a motion for a retrial based on alleged judicial misconduct by Judge Hall; the judge overruled this motion, and Celia was sentenced on October 13, 1855, to be executed by hanging November 16, 1855. The defense appealed to the Missouri Supreme Court, without success.

Celia escaped jail on November 11; she remained at large until the beginning of December, when Harry Newsom returned Celia to the jail. The night before her execution, Celia gave a full confession, again denying anyone had helped her. This confession was reported in the Fulton Telegraph, but made no mention of the sexual abuse by Newsom.

On December 21, 1855, Celia was hanged.

  The Thirteenth Amendment (Amendment XIII) to the United States Constitution abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for a crime, is proclaimed on December 18, 1865. 

The amendment was passed by the Senate on April 8, 1864, by the House of Representatives on January 31, 1865, ratified by the required 27 of the then 36 states on December 6, 1865, and proclaimed on December 18.

 In 1879, U.S. cavalry captain Richard Henry Pratt opened the Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. The Carlisle Indian Industrial School was a government-backed institution that forcibly separated Native American children from their parents in order to, as Pratt put it, “kill the Indian in him, and save the man.”

Over the next several decades, Carlisle served as a model for nearly 150 such schools that opened around the country. 

At the boarding schools, staff forced Indigenous students to cut their hair and use new, Anglo-American names, stop speaking their Native language, and prevented them from observing their religious and cultural practices. The forced removal also disrupted relationships with their families and their tribes. Children that did return home struggled to relate to their families.

“Through breaking bonds to culture, they [broke] bonds to one another,” says Doug Kiel, a history professor at Northwestern University. “It’s a way of destroying a community.”

The boarding schools are another reason why many Indigenous languages are now endangered, or even dead. 

Many students never made it home at all. Boarding schools were susceptible to deadly infections like tuberculosis and the flu, and the schools had their own cemeteries for dead students. Between Carlisle’s founding in 1879 and its closing in 1918, the school buried nearly 200 children in its cemetery. 

Boarding schools based on the Carlisle model fizzled out in the early 20th century. But after that, the disruption of Native American families continued in other ways. By the 1940s, “Native kids are simply being deemed to be in unfit households with unfit mothers,” Kiel says.

“That’s not official government policy,” he continues. “But it’s a racially-biased perception of Native families, of Native homes, of Native mothers that has the effect of forcibly removing Native children from their homes and placing them into, generally, the homes of white people in ways that serve to cut Native people off from their communities.”

It wasn’t until 1978 that Congress passed the Indian Child Welfare Act based on research that “25–35 percent of all Native children were being removed; of these, 85 percent were placed outside of their families and communities—even when fit and willing relatives were available.” With the act, tribes won the ability to determine the residency of children in that tribe.

 The history of forced sterilizations based on eugenics in the United States is long and still continues. Thousands of people were forcibly sterilized without their consent and often their knowledge, based on attempts to breed out undesirable traits or races.

In 1907 Indiana passed the first eugenics-based mandatory sterilization law in the world. Thirty-one other states would eventually follow suit.

Beginning in 1909 and continuing for 70 years, California led the country in the number of sterilization procedures performed on men and women, often without their full knowledge and consent. Approximately 20,000 sterilizations took place in state institutions. California’s eugenics programs were driven in part by anti-Asian and anti-Mexican prejudice.

Southern states also employed sterilization to control African American populations. “Mississippi appendectomies” was the name for unnecessary hysterectomies performed at teaching hospitals in the South on women of color as practice for medical students.

In 1927, the U.S. Supreme Court decided, by a vote of 8 to 1, to uphold a state's right to forcibly sterilize a person considered unfit to procreate. The case, known as Buck v. Bell, centered on a young woman named Carrie Buck, whom the state of Virginia had deemed to be "feebleminded."

Buck v. Bell was considered a victory for America's eugenics movement, an early 20th century school of thought that emphasized biological determinism and actively sought to "breed out" traits that were considered undesirable.

Forced sterilization of Native Americans persisted into the 1970s and 1980s, with many young women unknowingly receiving tubal ligations when they were getting appendectomies. It’s estimated that as many as 25-50 percent of Native American women were sterilized between 1970 and 1976. 

Forced sterilization programs are also part of Puerto Rico’s history, where sterilization rates are said to be the highest in the world.

  In the 1930s, doctors in Puerto Rico falsely pushed women into sterilizations as the only means of contraception. It is estimated that between 1947-1948, 7% of Puerto Rican women were sterilized and by 1956, one out of three women were sterilized. In many cases Puerto Ricans were told their tubes were being tied, but never told it was an irreversible procedure.

Mexican American women were sterilized under duress while giving birth at Los Angeles County-USC Medical Center in the 1960s and 1970s.

In the 1970’s Mary Alice and Minnie Relf, poor African American sisters from Alabama, were sterilized at the ages of 14 and 12. Their mother, who was illiterate, had signed an “X” on a piece of paper she believed gave permission for her daughters, who were both mentally disabled, to receive birth control shots. In 1974, the Southern Poverty Law Center filed a lawsuit on behalf of the Relf sisters, revealing that 100,000 to 150,000 poor people were being sterilized each year under federally-funded programs.

Forced sterilizations continue with nearly 150 female inmates in California prisons sterilized without proper state approvals from 2006-2010. California did not ban sterilizing inmates without their consent until 2014.

As recently as 2020 allegations surfaced of involuntary hysterectomies being performed on immigrant women in ICE detention centers.

In 1908, Mabel Hallam, a white woman, claimed that George  Richardson, a Black man, had raped her. Richardson was quickly taken  into custody along with Joe James, another Black man who was being held  on murder charges. 

A 5,000-person white mob gathered outside the jail  and demanded the release of the two men so that they could inflict their  own violence upon them. The two men were secretly moved to another  jail, and the mob, upon learning this, erupted. They went to Black  neighborhoods and destroyed Black homes and businesses until the  violence eventually culminated into the lynching of Scott Burton and  Will Donegan, two prominent leaders in the Black community. 

Hallam  recanted her rape allegation two weeks after the riot. 

The 19th amendment was passed by Congress June 4, 1919, and ratified on August 18, 1920.

The 19th amendment legally guarantees American women the right to  vote. 

The amendment was first introduced in 1878.

Women's suffrage supporters lectured, wrote, marched, lobbied, and practiced civil disobedience starting in the mid-19th century. Few early supporters lived to see final victory in 1920.

They used a variety of tactics to achieve their goal such as getting states to pass suffrage acts (nine western states adopted woman suffrage legislation by 1912).  

Others challenged male-only voting laws in the courts. They also picketed, held silent vigils and hunger strikes. Often they were heckled, jailed, and physically abused.

Many women still remained unable to vote long into the 20th century because of discriminatory state voting laws. 

The Tulsa race massacre was a two-day-long white supremacist terrorist massacre that took place in the Greenwood District in Tulsa, Oklahoma between May 31 and June 1, 1921, after a 19-year-old Black shoeshiner was accused of assaulting a white 21-year-old elevator operator. Mobs of white residents, some of whom had been appointed as deputies and armed by city government officials, attacked black residents and destroyed homes and businesses. The event, while rarely taught in many schools, is considered one of the worst incidents of racial violence in American history. The mob burned and destroyed more than 35 square blocks of the neighborhood—at the time, one of the wealthiest black communities in the United States, known as "Black Wall Street."

More than 800 people were hospitalized. The Oklahoma Bureau of Vital Statistics officially recorded 36 dead. The 2001 Tulsa Reparations Coalition identified 39 dead, 26 black and 13 white, based on contemporary autopsy reports, death certificates, and other records. 

As a result of the massacre, about 10,000 black people were left homeless, and the damage amounted to more than $1.5 million in real estate and $750,000 in personal property (equivalent to $39.66 million in 2024). By the end of 1922, most of the homes had been rebuilt, but the city and real estate companies refused compensation. Many survivors left Tulsa, while those who chose to stay in the city largely kept silent about the event for decades. The massacre was omitted from local, state, and national histories until 1996, 75 years after the massacre, when the state legislature formed the Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921.

Link to a more detailed article about the Tulsa Race Massacre

https://www.history.com/articles/tulsa-race-massacre

 Recy Taylor was a 24-year-old Black mother. On her walk home from church on September 3, 1944, seven white men held her and a friend at gunpoint and abducted Taylor. They then took her to a remote area of the woods where six of the men raped her and left her on the side of the highway.

 Taylor identified her rapists to the police and testified against them. One of the men confessed afterwards and identified the other six men, who claimed that because they had “paid” Taylor, the incident could not be considered rape. None of the men were taken into custody, and the Taylor family home was burned down the day after the confession.

In response to this, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) sent activist Rosa Parks, the NAACP’s chief rape investigator during this time period. Taylor and Parks’s efforts resulted in a hearing on October 3, 1944. The all-white, all-male jury dismissed the case after five minutes of deliberation. Parks continued to organize alongside other activists by forming the Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor. A second trial began on February 14, 1945, resulting in three more of the men confessing to the rape. However, none were prosecuted for the crime.

On June 14, 1954, President Dwight Eisenhower signed a bill to insert the phrase "Under God" into the United States Pledge of Allegiance.

Previously the pledge, which was written in 1892, had no reference to religion or God. 

In 1956, President Dwight Eisenhower made "In God We Trust" the official motto of the United States.

This did not appear on any currency, paper or coins, prior to the 1950's.

 On May 9, 1960, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the first commercially produced birth control pill in the world. 

Margaret Sanger initially commissioned “the pill” with funding from heiress Katherine McCormick. 

 United States funded sexual violence and violence in general against  Indigenous people in Guatemala. 

Commonly referred to as the Maya  genocide, the Guatamalan government systematically raped, tortured, and  murdered Maya people during the Guatamalan Civil War, which lasted from  1960 to 1996. 900,000 Maya people were displaced, and 166,000 were  killed. 

During the Río Negro massacres, the specific event known and  funded by the United States in 1982, Guatemalan soldiers forced Maya  women to dance for their entertainment before taking them apart from the  group to rape them. They then forced the captured Maya group to walk up  a nearby mountain while beating the women and children. Once they  reached the top, the group was brutally massacred. 

On June 10, 1963, President John F. Kennedy signed the Equal Pay Act into law, prohibiting sex-based wage discrimination between men and women performing the same job in the same workplace. 

The Equal Pay Act was first introduced by U.S. Congress in 1945. The measure failed to pass.

By 1960, women still earned less than two-thirds of what their male counterparts were paid.

Esther Peterson, head of the Women’s Bureau of the Department of Labor and former First Lady Eleanor Roosvelt, chair of Kennedy’s Presidential Commission on the Status of Women. State Representatives Katharine St. George and Edith Green also helped push for a bill in Congress.

The bill was opposed by the Chamber of Commerce and the Retail Merchandise Association. 

 On June 30, 1966, Betty Friedan helped to found the National Organization for Women (NOW). A portion of their original statement of purpose is as follows:

"We, men and women who hereby constitute ourselves as the National Organization for Women, believe that the time has come for a new movement toward true equality for all women in America, and toward a fully equal partnership of the sexes, as part of the world-wide revolution of human rights now taking place within and beyond our national borders.

The purpose of NOW is to take action to bring women into full participation in the mainstream of American society now, exercising all the privileges and responsibilities thereof in truly equal partnership with men. "

 In January 1969, the People's Free Food Program also known as the Free Breakfast for School Children Program was started as a community service program by the Black Panthers.

The program began at Father Earl A. Neil's St. Augustine's Episcopal Church in West Oakland, California and spread throughout the nation.

By the end of the year, they had fed 20,000 children across the United States. 

In 1971, the first rape crisis center in San Francisco, called the Bay Area Women Against Rape (BAWAR) was opened. 

It was co-founded by Oleta Abrams after her 15-year-old foster daughter experienced sexual violence in a stairwell at Berkeley High School and was not adequately supported by police officers and doctors after she reported it. 

Women gained the right to open credit cards in their own names in 1974 when President Gerald Ford signed the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (ECOA) into law. The ECOA made it illegal for lenders to discriminate against women when applying for credit.      

Before the ECOA   

• Banks often required women to have a male cosigner to get a credit card 
• Banks sometimes discounted women's wages by up to 50% when calculating credit card limits 
• Women were often asked personal questions about their marital status 

In 1976, Congress added protections against discrimination based on race, color, religion, national origin, age, or receipt of public assistance.

On Jan. 22, 1973, in its landmark 7-2 Roe v. Wade decision, the United States Supreme Court declared that the Constitution protects a woman’s legal right to an abortion.

The Supreme Court held that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the Constitution provided a fundamental "right to privacy", which protects a pregnant woman's right to an abortion. It also held that the right to abortion is not absolute and must be balanced against the government's interests in protecting women's health and prenatal life.

 During the first trimester, the Court ruled that a state government could not restrict a woman's choice to abort pregnancies other than imposing minimal medical safeguards, such as requiring abortions to be performed by licensed physicians. 

From the second trimester on, the Court ruled that medical regulations could be placed on abortion procedures so long as they were reasonable and "narrowly tailored" to protecting mothers' health.

 From the beginning of the third trimester on—the Court ruled that a state could legally prohibit all abortions except where necessary to protect the mother's life or health. 

The Stonewall Rebellion was a series of demonstrations against a police raid that started in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn, in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of Lower Manhattan in New York City.

 Stonewall was raided on average once a month leading up to the raid on  June 28, 1969, and had been raided  once already that week. 

 While it is often referred to as the "Stonewall Riots",  Stonewall veterans prefer the term  Stonewall uprising or rebellion. The reference to riots  was used by police to justify their use of force.  

There were a number of uprisings in the years before Stonewall. These have not received as attention as Stonewall, but are just as central to United States LGBTQIA+ history. 

Some of the pre-Stonewall uprisings included: 

• Pepper Hill Club Raid, Baltimore, Maryland in 1955. Over 162 people arrested.
• Hazel's (Hazel's Inn), Sharp Park, California February 1956
• Coopers Do-Nut Raid, Los Angeles, California, 1959
• Black Nite Brawl, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, August 5, 1961
• Dewey’s Lunch Counter Sit-In, Philadelphia, 1965
• Compton's Cafeteria Raid, San Francisco, California, 1966
• Black Cat Raid, Los Angeles, California, 1967

The Stonewall Rebellion marked a new beginning for the gay rights movement in the United States and around the world. 

 On July 7, 1981, Sandra Day O'Connor was sworn in by President Ronald Reagan as the first woman to serve on the U.S. Supreme Court. She served for 24 years, retiring in 2006.

  In 1991, Anita Hill, an attorney and previous advisor to Supreme Court  nominee Clarence Thomas, testified that Thomas had sexually harassed her  during his time as chair of the Equal Employment Opportunity  Commission.

Hill testified before a committee of 14 white men. Records  from the committee’s discussion include comments such as that of former  Senator Arlen Specter, who stated that discussing “large breasts” in the  workplace was commonplace and, therefore, not offensive.

Thomas was confirmed by a vote of  52 to 48.  

 Historically,  women were barred from wearing pants on the U.S. Senate floor until  1993, when Senators Carol Moseley Braun and Barbara Mikulski defied the  unwritten rule.

Today, women senators  can wear pants, though the Senate's 2023 formal dress code still  primarily defines "business attire" based on men's clothing.  

 In 2018, when Brett Kavanaugh was nominated to the  supreme court by Donald Trump, Dr. Christine Blasey Ford came forward  with her story of victimization by Kavanaugh when the two were in high  school. 

In later interviews, Dr. Blasey Ford also described an enduring  rape culture in the network of preparatory schools in D.C. where the  assault had occurred that created the environment in which this behavior  was accepted. 

Despite the FBI receiving approximately 4,500 tips  regarding the case, Kavanaugh was confirmed to the Supreme Court. 

On June 4, 2022, the Supreme Court overturned the Roe v. Wade decision. 

 Project 2025 (also known as the 2025 Presidential Transition Project) is a political initiative to reshape the federal government of the United States and remove check on executive power in favor of right-wing policies. 

The plan was published in April 2023 by the American conservative think tank The Heritage Foundation in anticipation of Donald Trump winning the 2024 presidential election.